Lectures in Contrastive Lexicology of the English and Ukrainian Languages

Partial homonyms are of two types: homographs and homophones. Homographs are words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning: bow [bou] - bow [bau], row [rou] - row [rau], о'бід - 'обід, за'мок -'замок. Homophones are the words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning: knight - night; piece - peace; цеглина - це глина, потри - по три.

c) Classifications of Homonyms

From the viewpoint of their origin homonyms are divided into historical and etymological.

Historical homonyms are those which result from the breaking up of polysemy; then one polysemantic word will split up in two or more separate words.

e.g.: plant (рослина) - plant (завод); pupil (учень) - pupil (зрачок).

But sometimes it is difficult to decide whether all connection between the meanings of such words is lost and even the compilers of dictionaries hesitate how to treat such words.

Etymological homonyms are words of different etymology which come to be alike in sound or spelling. Various causes explain their appearance. Among these phonetical changes both in native and borrowed words played a great role.

e.g.: can (могти) - Old English cunnan (знати);

can (банка) - Old English canne (банка);

here (тут) - Old English her (тут);

to hear (чути) - Old English hieran (чути).

Sometimes a native word and a borrowed word coincide in form, thus producing homonyms.

e.g.: to bark (гавкати) - Old English beorcan and bark (кора дерева) from Scandinavian borkr (баркас). Or the Ukrainian word мул (дрібні частинки у водоймах) coincided with мул (назва тварини, which is a Latin word).

In other cases homonyms are a result of borrowing when several different words became identical in sound and/or in spelling.

e.g.: The Latin word vitim (wrong, an immoral habit) has given the English vice (порок), the Latin word vitis (a spiral) has given the English word vice (лещата). The Latin word vice (instead, in place) is found in vice-president.

In the Ukrainian language the word гриф (міфічна істота, which is a borrowing from Greek), гриф (частина струнного музичного інструмента, a borrowing from German), гриф (штемпель на документі,a borrowing from French).

Considering homonyms in their morphological aspect prof. Smirnitsky classifies them into lexical and lexico-grammatical. Lexical homonyms are of two types: perfect and partial. Perfect homonyms belong to the same part of speech with all forms coinciding: case (випадок) - case (сумка). Partial homonyms belong to the same part of speech but coincide only in some of their forms: to lie --lay - lain; to lie - lied - lied. Lexico-grammatical homonyms are represented by:

a) words belonging to the same part of speech but homonymic in their grammatical forms (excluding their initial forms): bore -to bore (the Past Indefinite of to bear);

b) words belonging to different parts of speech and homonymic only in some of their forms: I - to eye; nose - knows.

WORD COMBINATIONS AND PHRASEOLOGY IN MODERN ENGLISH AND UKRAINIAN LANGUAGES

Free and non-free word combinations.

2. Classifications of phraseological units.

3. Synonyms in phraseology.

4. Antonyms in phraseology.

5. Proverbs, sayings.

1. Free and Non-Free Word Combinations

The vocabulary of a language includes not only words but also stable word combinations which also serve as a means of expressing concepts. They are phraseological word equivalents reproduced in speech the way words are reproduced and not created anew in actual speech.

An ordinary word combination is created according to the grammatical rules of the language in accordance with a certain idea. The general meaning of an ordinary free word combination is derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements. Every notional word functions here as a certain member of the sentence. Thus, an ordinary word combination is a syntactical pattern.

A free word combination is a combination in which any element can be substituted by another.

e.g.: I like this idea. I dislike this idea. He likes the idea. I like that idea. I like this thought.

But when we use the term free we are not precise. The freedom of a word in a combination with others is relative as it is not only the syntactical pattern that matters. There are logical limitations too.

The second group of word combinations is semi-free word combinations. They are the combinations in which the substitution is possible but limited.

e.g.: to cut a poor/funny/strange figure.

Non-free word combinations are those in which the substitution is impossible.

e.g.: to come clean, to be in low water.

2. Classifications of Phraseological Units

A major stimulus to intensive studies of phraseology was prof. Vinogradov's research. The classification suggested by him has been widely adopted by linguists working on other languages. The classification of phraseological units suggested by V.V. Vinogradov includes:

- standardised word combinations, i.e. phrases characterised by the limited combinative power of their components, which retain their semantic independence: to meet the request/requirement, подавати надію, страх бере, зачепити гордість, покласти край;

- phraseological unities, i.e. phrases in which the meaning of the whole is not the sum of meanings of the components but it is based on them and the motivation is apparent: to stand to one's guns, передати куті меду, прикусити язика, вивести на чисту воду, тримати камінь за пазухою;

- fusions, i.e. phrases in which the meaning cannot be derived as a whole from the conjoined meanings of its components: tit for tat, теревені правити, піймати облизня, викинути коника, у Сірка очі позичити.

Phraseological unities are very often metaphoric. The components of such unities are not semantically independent, the meaning of every component is subordinated to the figurative meaning of the phraseological unity as a whole. The latter may have a homonymous expression - a free syntactical word combination.

e.g.: Nick is a musician. He plays the first fiddle.

It is his wife who plays the first fiddle in the house.

Phraseological unities may vary in their semantic and grammatical structure. Not all of them are figurative. Here we can find professionalisms, coupled synonyms.

A.V. Koonin finds it necessary to divide English phraseological unities into figurative and non-figurative.

Figurative unities are often related to analogous expressions with direct meaning in the very same way in which a word used in its transferred sense is related to the same word used in its direct meaning.

Scientific English, technical vocabulary, the vocabulary of arts and sports have given many expressions of this kind: in full blast; to hit below the belt; to spike smb's guns.

Among phraseological unities we find many verb-adverb combinations: to look for; to look after; to put down; to give in.

Phraseological fusions are the most synthetical of all the phraseological groups. They seem to be completely unmotivated though their motivation can be unearthed by means of historic analysis.

They fall under the following groups:

Idiomatic expressions which are associated with some obsolete customs: the grey mare, to rob Peter to pay Paul.

Idiomatic expressions which go back to some long forgotten historical facts they were based on: to bell the cat, Damocles' sword.

Idiomatic expressions expressively individual in their character: My God! My eye!

Idiomatic expressions containing archaic elements: by dint of (dint - blow); in fine (fine - end).

Semantic Classification of Phraseological Units

1. Phraseological units referring to the same notion.

e.g.: Hard work - to burn the midnight oil; to do back-breaking work; to hit the books; to keep one's nose to the grindstone; to work like a dog; to work one's fingers to the bone.

Compromise - to find middle ground; to go halfway.

Independence - to be on one's own; to have a mind of one's own; to stand on one's own two feet.

Experience - to be an old hand at something; to know something like the back of one's palm; to know the rope.Ледарювати - байдики бити, ханьки м'яти, ганяти вітер по вулицях, тинятися з кутка в куток, і за холодну воду не братися.

2. Professionalisms

e.g.: on the rocks; to stick to one's guns; breakers ahead. 3. Phraseological units having similar components

e.g.: a dog in the manger; dog days; to agree like cat and dog; to rain cats and dogs. To fall on deaf ears; to talk somebody's ear off; to have a good ear for; to be all ears. To see red; a red herring; a red carpet treatment; to be in the red; з перших рук; як без рук; горить у руках; не давати волі рукам.

4. Phraseological units referring to the same lexico-semantic field.

e.g.: Body parts - to cost an arm and leg; to pick somebody's brain; to get one's feet wet; to get off the chest; to rub elbows with; not to have a leg to stand on; to stick one's neck out; to be nosey; to make a headway; to knuckle down; to shake a leg; to pay through the noser; to tip toe around; to mouth off; без клепки в голові; серце з перцем; легка рука.

Fruits and vegetables - red as a beet; a couch potato; a hot potato; a real peach; as cool as a cucumber; a top banana;гриби після дощу; як горох при дорозі; як виросте гарбуз на вербі.

Animals - sly as a fox; to be a bull in a china shop; to go ape; to be a lucky dog; to play cat and mouse; як з гуски вода, як баран на нові ворота; у свинячий голос; гнатися за двома зайцями.

Structural Classification of Phraseological Units

Еnglish phraseological units can function like verbs (to drop a brick; to drop a line; to go halves; to go shares; to travel bodkin), phraseological units functioning like nouns (brains trust, ladies' man, phraseological units functioning like adjectives (high and dry, high and low,ill at ease, phraseological units functioning like adverbs (tooth and nail, on guard; by heart, phraseological units functioning like prepositions (in order to; by virtue of), phraseological units functioning like interjections (Good heavens! Gracious me! Great Scot!).

Ukrainian phraseological units can function like nouns (наріжний камінь, біла ворона, лебедина пісня), adjectives ( не з полохливого десятка, не остання спиця в колесі, білими нитками шитий), verbs ( мотати на вус, товкти воду в ступі, ускочити в халепу), adverbs ( не чуючи землі під ногами, кров холоне в жилах, ні в зуб ногою), interjections (цур тобі, ні пуху ні пера, хай йому грець).

Another structural classification was initiated by A.V. Koonin. He singles out Nominative, Nominative and Nominative-Communicative, Interjective, Communicative phraseological units.

Nominative phraseological units are of several types. It depends on the type of dependence. The first one is phraseological units with constant dependence of the elements.

e.g.: the Black Maria; the ace of trumps; a spark in the powder magazine.

The second type is represented by the phraseological units with the constant variant dependence of the elements.

e.g.: dead marines/men; a blind pig/tiger; a good/great deal.

There also exist phraseological units with grammar variants.

e.g.: Procrustes' bed = the Procrustean bed = the bed of Procrustes.

Another type of the Nominative phraseological units is units with quantitative variants. They are formed with the help of the reduction or adding the elements.

e.g.: the voice of one crying in the wilderness = a voice crying out in the wilderness= a voice crying in the wilderness = a voice in the wilderness.

The next type of the Nominative phraseological units is adjectival phraseological units.

e.g.: mad as a hatter; swift as thought; as like as two peas; fit as a fiddle.

The function of the adverbial phraseological units is that of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances.

e.g.: as cool as a cucumber; from one's cradle to one's grave; from pillar to post; once in a blue moon.

Nominative and Nominative-Communicative phraseological units are of several types as well. The first type is verbal phraseological units. Verbal phraseological units refer to this type in such cases: a) when the verb is not used in the Passive voice ( to drink like a fish; to buy a pig in a poke; to close one's eyes on something ; b) if the verb is not used in the Active voice (to be reduced to a shadow; to be gathered to one's fathers).

Nominative and Nominative-Communicative phraseological units can have lexical variants.

e.g.: to tread/walk on air; to close/shut books; to draw a red herring across the trail/track; to come to a fine/handsome/nice/pretty pass; to sail close/near to the wind; to crook/lift the elbow/the little finger.

Grammar variants are also possible.

e.g.: to get into deep water = to get into deep waters; to pay nature's debt = to pay the debt of nature.

Examples of quantitative variants can also be found: to cut the Gordian knot = to cut the knot; to lead somebody a dance = to lead somebody a pretty dance.

Lexico-grammar variants are also possible: to close/shut a /the door/doors on/upon/to somebody.

Interjective phraseological units are represented by: by George! By Jove! Good heavens! Gracious me!

Communicative phraseological units are represented by proverbs and sayings.

e.g.: Rome was not built in a day. An apple a day keeps a doctor away. That's another pair of shoes. More power to your elbow. Carry me out.

3. Synonyms in Phraseology

Synonymy in phraseology has been greatly enriched by various processes of the meaning shift, by the influx of foreign words and phrases.

Absolute synonyms which have the same meaning and connotation are comparatively rare.

e.g.: over head and ears = up to the neck;

a pretty kettle of fish = a nice pair of shoes;

байдики бити - давати горобцям дулі.

Relative synonyms denote different shades of different degrees of common meaning:

e.g.: to come to a conclusion; to jump at a conclusion; to leap at a conclusion.

There is every reason to establish a stylistic differentiation of synonyms. The synonyms of a particular phrase are not always interchangeable with that phrase as their use depends on the linguistic situation, the audience addressed, the speaker's attitude towards the subject. Some of them are stylistically neutral, others have an emotional connotation. In stylistic synonyms the difference is not so much in the meaning as in the emotional colouring.

e.g.: word of honour (neutral) - as I live by bread (colloquial);

to be in high spirits (neutral) - to be on high ropes (colloquial);

заснути вічним сном (neutral) - простягти ноги (colloquial).

4. Antonyms in Phraseology

Antonyms can be opposed to each other in their concrete meanings.

e.g.: an old sea wolf - a young calf of a mate; вбити собі в голову - викинути з голови, набитий гаманець - вітер у кишенях свистить.

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