The comparative typology of English, Russian and Uzbek languages

E.g: In the words sportive, elegant morphemes sport, elegant may occur alone as utterances, but the forms-ive, - ant, eleg cannot be used alone without the root morphemes.

The morphemes may be classified in two ways: a) from the semantic point of view, and b) from the structural point of view.

Semantically morphemes fall into two classes: the root morphemes and non-root (affixational) morpheme.

The root morphemes is the lexical nucleus of the word and it they usually express mainly the lexical meaning i.e. material part of the meaning of the word, while the affixes morphemes can express both lexical and grammatical meanings, this they can be characterized as lexical affixes (-er) and grammatical suffixes (-s) in «writ-er-s». The lexical suffixes are usually used mainly in word building process to form words (e.g. help-less, black-ness, teach-er, speak-er, нажот-сиз, ?ора-лик, ў?ит-ув-чи, сўз-лов-чи) where grammatical suffixes serve to express the grammatical meaning of the word by changing its form (paradigm) (e.g. speaker) John' - s, (case ending denoting possession) come a (person, number, tense, aspect, mood, active, voice) 3rd person singular present simple, indicative mood, active voice. Thus we can say that the grammatical significance of affixes (derivational) morphemes is always combined with their lexical meaning.

e.g. verb-to write_ёзмо?

noun - writer - ёзувчи

The derivative morpheme «-er» has a grammatical meaning as it serves to distinguish a-noun from a verb and it has a lexical meaning i.e. the doer of the action. The root of the notional words is classical lexical morphemes.

The affixes (derivational) morphemes include prefixes, suffixes and inflexions (grammatical suffixes). Prefixes and lexical suffixes have word building functions. Together with the root they form the stem of the word. Prefixes precede the root morpheme (im-personal, un-known, re-write), suffixes follow it (e.g: friend-ship, active-ize, readi-ness, дўст-лик, фаоллаш-тир-мо?, тайёр-лик).

Inflexions word-forming suffixes express different morphological categories.

Structurally morphemes fall under three types: a) free morphemes, b) bound morphemes, c) send-bound morphemes.

A free morpheme is the stem of the word, a great many free morphemes are root morphemes. (e.g. London-er, sports-man-ship). A bound morphemes for they are alwaysmake a part of the word. (e.g. - ness, - ship, - dom, - dis, - pre, un-, чи, паз, - дон, бе-, сер, по,) some root morphemes also belong to the class of bound morphemes.

1.5 The problem of Parts of speech

A word is known as the smallest naming unit of the language. According to L. Bloomfield, word is a minimum free form. Close observation and comparison of words clearly shows that a great number of words have a composite nature and are made up of smaller units, each possessing sound-form and meaning. In other words, the term word denotes the basic unit of a given language resulting from the association of a particular meaning with a particular group of sounds capable of a grammatical employment is a word is therefore simultaneously a semantic, grammatical and phonological unit.

The words of every language fall into classes which are called parts of speech. The problem of parts of speech is one of the controversial problems of modern linguistics. The theoretical side of this problem is the subject matter of the theoretical grammar. therefore we should base our comparison of system of parts of speech on the generally recognized (acknowledged) opinions of grammarians.

In order to make easier to learn the language the grammarians usually divide the word-stock of the language into some subclasses called in linguists the parts of speech.

The main principles of classifying words into parts of speech are: their meaning, form and function, that is to say the words of any language differ from each other in meaning in form and in function. different parts of speech have different lexical meanings.

e.g. verbs denote process or state; nouns express the names of objects, adjectives their properties…

Some parts of speech have different grammatical categories. Verbs have the category of mood, tense, aspect, voice, person, number etc., noun - case, number, adjective - comparison, etc. The parts of speech also differ from each other in their syntactic function; e.g. verbs are used in the sentence structure as predicates, nouns-as subjects, adjectives-as attributes etc.

All words of the comparing languages may be divided into three main groups:

1. Notional words

2. Structural words

3. Independent elements

Notional words have distinct lexical meanings and perform independent syntactic functions in the sentence structure, they serve as primary or secondary parts of the sentence. To this group belong the following parts of speech: Noun, verb, adjective, pronouns, numerals, statives and adverbs. It should be kept in mind that statives in Uzbek are otter interchanged with adjectives and not treated as an independent part of speech.

Structural words differ from the notional words semantically their lexical meaning is of a more general character than that of the notional words. Moreover they sometimes altogether avid it that they are independent syntactic function in the sentence structure but serve either to express various relations between the words in a sentence (e.g. trees in the garden, Tom and Joe, etc.) or to specify the meaning of the words (e.g. there is a book on the table, the book on the table is mine, etc.)

The following parts of speech are to be treated as structural words: articles, particles (only, solely, exclusively mainly) prepositions and conjunctions. Articles and prepositions are individual character of English differentiating it from Uzbek as the functions of these parts of speech in Uzbek are performed by other elements of the language.

Independent elements are words which are characterized by their peculiar meanings of various kind. They usually have no grammatical connections with the sentence in which they occur, i.e. they do not perform any syntactic function in the sentence. e.g. They certainly will come to the party.

Sometimes independent elements can even serve as sentences themselves; e.g. Yes, No, Alas.

Independent class of words include modal words, interjections, words of affirmation and negation.

It is noteworthy that the decision of words into parts of speech can be accepted only with certain reservation there are words which cannot be classed among any of the above motioned parts of speech such as a please, anyway ?ар ?алай.

Typological categories of English and Uzbek words

The words of any language are characterized by their ability to express definite notions existing in this society, thus changing their forms. Most of the notions existing in the society have common peculiarities, i.e. they have universal character.

Among the linguistic categories which can be traced in most of the languages of the world we can see the categories which display typologically general character but can be expressed in different languages in different ways. Studying these linguistic facts figuring out their similarities and differences is much of importance for the man of letters, especially for the graduates of the language faculties of universities who are going to become English teachers and interpreters in near future.

For instance, such linguistic notions as case, gender person, tense, voice, possession, etc. are of general character for the comparing languages, but they may be expressed by typological different means of the language. In this chapter we try to generalize the main means of expressing the notions which are of peculiar type of the comparing languages.

1.6 Typological category of case

The system of grammatical forms indicating the syntactic relations of nouns (or pronouns) is usually treated as the category of case, in other words, case is a grammatical form which takes part in the formation of the paradigm of nouns (or pronouns). Grammarians seem to be divided in their opinions as to the case system of the English nouns. The most common view is that they have only two case: common (subject) and possessive (genitive) cases. The common case is characterized by a zero morpheme (suffix) e.g. child, boy, student, ir. and the possessive case by the indexing is and its phonetic variants as [s] and [z].

The Uzbek бош келишиги (common or subject case) corresponds in meaning and function to the English common case both of them are unmarked member of the case opposition and perform similar syntactic function in the sentence structure.

English common case and other five cases of Uzbek are marked members of the case opposition in both languages. The English possessive case is marked by the stiffly is which can sometimes be substituted by the preposition of (e.g. my father's room, the room of may father) and therefore is sometimes called of - genitive - case. This case denotes possession of a thing or a person and in Uzbek it has its correspondence in the Uzbek караткич келишиги which is expressed by the case ending suffix num.

Dealing with notion of possession one should keep in mind that in Uzbek this category may be expressed not only by the nouns but also their antecedents in the pleonastic phrase such as менинг опамб сизнинг паспортингизю. In this case we have to face the problem of redundancy and often try to avoid it using the modified noun only which contains the possessive suffix. e.g. опам кeлди. In this case the suffix of possession can be rendered in English and in Russian by means of special possessive pronouns. e.g. My sister came. Моя сестра пришла.

Meaning and functions of the other Uzbek cases may be denoted in Uzbek either by means of prepositions or by word order. For instance the meaning and function of the Uzbek тушум келиши is expressed in Uzbek by means of the case ending - ши which denotes the object acted upon and it may be expressed in English by means of word order which is characterized in this language to be very strict in comparison with Russian or Uzbek (e.g. курдим кузингни колдим балога, кайга борайин энди давога? - Видел я твои очи черные (и заболел) куда мне теперь идти на лечение?) Some English grammarians O. Curme, M. Doutschbein recognize word order in English as dative case.

Dealing with this case one has to keep in mind the structure of the sentence i.e. the word order in the sentences of the comparing languages - sov (in Uzbek e.g. мен укамни курдим) and svo (in English I saw my brother»)

The Uzbek урин пайт келишиги denotes he place of the thing or a person in the space and it can be rendered in English by means of prepositions at, in, an, by, over, above, among, between, behind etc. (e.g.У:китоб жавонда. The book is in the bookcase.) It should be kept in mind that most of the English preposition may contain (more) additional meaning denoting the place of the thing or a person. (сu in - мчи-behind_ор?асида, between_орасида, under_остида, etc).

The Uzbek жуналиш келишиги denotes the direction of an action performed by means of the case ending_га. It can be rendered in English also by means of prepositions to, at, into, etc. e.g. V(йигит) мактаб - га кетди. He went to school. У ?из менга ?аради. She looked at me.

Чи?иш келишиги of Uzbek nouns denotes the beginning point of the action denoted by the verb. It can be rendered in English by means of preposition from, out of, from under, etc. e.g.:У(?из) Лондон-дан келди. She came from London.У(йигит) сумкаси-дан ?ул?опларини олди. He took his gloves out of his bag.

1.7 Typological category of gender

The typological category of gender consists of the notions of natural (biological sex and the grammatical (formal) gender. The connection of this category with the natural sex is in the animals and birds. It is displayed by the nouns and pronouns in English. (But in Russian it can also expressed by the adjectives and the past simple tense forms of the verbs.) Most of the Uzbek grammar books do not contain any information about the category of gender of Uzbek nouns, because the authors consider Uzbek nouns not to have this category at all.

In accordance with their lexical meanings the nouns of the comparing nouns may be classed as belonging to the masculine, feminine and neuter genders. Names of male beings are usually masculine (e.g.: man, husband, boy, son, nephew, bull, ox, ram(whether), cock, stallion - ота, у?ил, эркак, ?укиз, бу?а, новвос, ?уч?ор, хуроз, ай?ир) and names of female beings are feminine (e.g.: woman, lady, girl, daughter, wife, niece, cow heifer(?унажин), ewe [ju:] (совли?), hen, mare_ауол, хоним, ?из(бола), ?из (фарзанд), хотин, сигир, ?унажин, собли?, макиуон, байтал).All other nouns are said to be neuter gender (e.g.:pencil, flower, rain, bird, sky-?алам, гул, уом?ир, парранда, ?уш, осмон).

Gender finds its formal expression in the replacement of nouns by the personal pronouns in the mind person singular, i.e., she, it.

However there some nouns in English which may be treated as either makes or females. e.g: friend, cousin, doctor, neighbor, worker, etc. The same can be said about the Uzbek terms of kinship e.g.: жиян, ?ариндош, холавачча, ?уда, ?ушни, табиб, ишчи. They are said to be of common (neuter) gender. When there is no need to make distinction of sex the masculine pronoun is used for these nouns.

There are three ways of expressing the category of gender in the comparing languages: morphological, syntactical and lexical. Morphological way of expressing the category of gender is realized by adding suffixes of gender to the stem of the word. It is a highly developed way of expressing gender in Russian by means of suffixes ending in: a) consonants to be masculine, e.g.: дом, стол, праздник; b) vowels as - a, - я to be feminine. e.g.: мама, старуха, тетя; c) vowels-o, - e to be neuter. e.g.: ружъуо, море, окно и т.п.

English has the only suffix - ess which is used to denote feminine gender.e.g.: host-ess, actr-ess, waitr-ess, princ-ess, lion-ess, and tiger-ess. Feminine gender in Uzbek may often be expressed by means of the suffix- a which is supposed to be of Arabic origin e.g.: - раис_а, вазир_а, шоир_а, муаллим_а, котиб_а etc.

In order denote the gender syntactic way is also possible. In this case different kinds of combinations of words are formed in which adjunct word (modifier) usually denotes the sex of the head word. e.g.: man servant - ?арол, amid servant_оксоч, boy friend-ў?ил бола урто?, girl friend-?из бола ўрто?, tom cat_еркак мушук, tabby cat_ур?очи мушук, he-wolf_еркак бўри, she wolf_ур?очи бўри, he goat_така, she goat_она ечки, etc. As is seen from these examples English gender denoted by a syntactic combination (man servant she goat can be expressed in Uzbek both by syntactically and lexically, (?арол, она ечки).

In most cases gender can be expressed lexically, i.e. by the stem of the noun only. e.g.: father_ота, uncle_амаки, niece - (?из) жиян, sister-in-law_келин, lord_жаноб, also names of animals, such as mare_бия, tiger - (арка) йўлбарс, ram-?ўч?ор, etc. Names of people can also denote the gender of the person who owns this name. e.g.: Arthur, Christopher, John - А?маджон, Ба?одир, Ша?обиддин denoting male being and Mary, Christine, Nelly, - Сайера, Мехринисо, Гулоим, etc.

Nouns denoting various kinds of vessels (ship, boat, yacht, life-raft), the noun `car`, as well as the names of countries are sometimes referred to as feminine gender, i.e. by means of `she`. This fact is usually called personification. e.g.:

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