Сategory of number of nouns

In some cases the plural form of the noun does not express were pluralities (as in tables = table + table…) but acquires a special meaning. Very often the plural form, besides this specific meaning, may also retain the exact meaning of the singular thus resulting in two homonymous words:

colour = tint, colours = 1) plural of tint, 2) flag:

«I do not mean regimental colours, but the watercolours.» [17]

custom = habit, customs = 1) plural of habit, 2) duties:

Many old customs are dying out. Customs (пошлины) are duties imposed by law on goods imported and exported.

pain = suffering, pains = I) plural of suffering, 2) effort:

She enlivened our journey by describing to us… the various pains she had in her back. [11] «I have examined Adele… and find you have taken great pains with her… [2]

quarter = fourth part, quarters = 1) plural of fourth part, 2) lodgings:

I have read three quarters of the book. We found him ire his old quarters.

work = toil, labour; works in various senses: the works of a watch (механизм часов), works of art, etc.

1.9 Double Plural Forms

Some nouns have double plurals used with some difference of meaning:

f 1) brothers (sons of one mother) brother - y 2) brethren (members of one community)

J 1) geniuses (men of genius) genius ^ 2) genii (spirits)

f 1) pennies (number of coins) penny - y 2) pence (amount of pennies in value)

(1) staffs (military staffs [штаб], staffs [штат] of an staff institution)

I 2) staves (sticks)

II) cloths (kinds of cloth) cloth - clothes (articles of dress)

J I) indexes (tables of contents) index - indices (in mathematics)

2. The Development or Loss of Plural Forms in Connection with a Change or Variation of Meaning of the Noun

1. A number of nouns in English which are used only in the singular (uncountable) may through a change or variation of meaning acquire the forms of both numbers, singular and plural (and thus become countable). This is found in the following instances:

a) Material nouns which are used only in the singular (uncountable) express numbers, singular and plural (countable), when they denote different sorts:

«This is a very rare and most delicious wine. [10] There are many different wines on this list. The teas (tobaccos) of this plantation are of a very good quality. We produce high quality steels.

Note. - When a material noun serves to denote an object made of that material, it becomes a class-noun and may be used in both numbers:

Give me a glass (two glasses) of water. I have bought a new iron (two-new irons). A copper, two coppers (медная монета, медяк).

b) The noun hair is used in the singular (волосы); a hair is used only with the meaning of a few separate hairs (волосок, волоски):

…this girl's hair was chestnut, almost auburn. [6] She has a few grey hairs. She has more hair than wit, and more faults than hairs. (Shakespeare.)

c) The noun fruit is used in the singular. The plural form fruits denotes different kinds of fruit:

The fruit is not yet ripe. We have much fruit this year.

But: The fruits were local, consisting of apples, pears, nuts, and such other products of the summer… [9]

The plural form fruit is also used when the meaning is figurative:

Fruits of the workers' toil are buried in the strong coffers of a few. (The International.) The rich fruits of the heroic labour of Soviet people are visible from all corners of the earth, and they are an inspiration to the citizens of other countries advancing along the path of Socialism.

d) Abstract nouns which are used only in the singular (uncountable), taken in a general sense, acquire both numbers (and thus become countable) when they express concrete instances or special aspects of the notion which they denote:

It has been such a joy to see you and Holly. [21]… he sympathized with their joys and grieves; [5]

…now I remembered that the real world was wide, and that a varied field of hopes and fears, of sensations and excitements, awaited those who had courage to go forth into its expense to seek real knowledge of life amidst its perils. [2]… May.night had fallen soft and warm, enwrapping with its grape bloom colour and its scents the billion caprices, intrigues, passions, longings, and regrets of men and women. [21] Little Sharp, with her secret griefs, was the heroine of the day. [1] When sorrows come, they come, not single spies, but in battalions. [1]

Note. - When such nouns as beauty, youth, etc. do not denote abstract qualities but people characterized by those qualities, they become class-nouns and are used in both numbers (like countable nouns): a beauty (красавица), a youth (юноша);

This girl is a real beauty. The youths were marching with red banners-Some abstract nouns are used in English only in the singular (uncountable), whereas in Russian the corresponding nouns are used in both numbers (countable): information, news, business, advice, work (работа), progress (успех), and others: «What sort of work did you do?"[4] «You always give me good advice…» [10] «This news has shaken me, Eliot.» [20] She is making splendid progress in English.

To indicate concrete instances of advice, information, etc., the words piece or item are used:

You tell them one or two items of news. [11] «It is a very strange piece of business!» I added… [2]»… I'd like to give you a little piece of advice.» [24] She gave me one piece of intelligence, which affected me very much… [10]

2. Sometimes material nouns and abstract nouns are used in the plural with emphatic force:

The frozen snows of the Arctic; the sands of the Sahara Desert; the blue waters of the Mediterranean Sea; a thousand thanks; a thousand pities.

The thunders bellowed over the wild waste of waters, and were echoed and prolonged by the mountain waves. [13]

«Thanks. A thousand and one thanks. [19] Far off, rising in an immense slope…Etna soars towards the heavens, sending from the summit, on which the snows still linger, a steady plume of ivory smoke. [13]»… it would be a thousand pities to throw away such a chance of fun.» [2] Far below…I heard the «unseen tumbling of the waters. [23] «A thousand pardons?» [10] At sleepy intervals the surf flung its foam across the sands to the grass… [7]

3. A number of nouns which express both singular and plural (countable) may with a change of meaning are used only in the singular (thus becoming uncountable). This is the case:

a) When the name of an animal is used to denote its flesh used as food:

A fat brown goose lay at one end of the table… [11] (a countable noun) - While Gabriel and Miss Daly exchanged plates of goose and plates of ham and spiced beef, Lily went from guest to guest… [11] (an uncountable noun) Two white swans came majestically by… [21] (a countable noun) «I have n-never eaten roast swan b-before,» I stammered… [24] (an uncountable noun)

b) When the names of trees are used to indicate the corresponding kind of wood as material or as live plants:

And among the oaks the bluebells stood in pools of azure… [22] (a countable noun) - «Oak», he exclaimed. «All carved oak, right up the ceiling…» [11] (an uncountable noun)… beautiful woods of birch, fir, and pine cast their shadows through the carriage window as we speed along. [19] (an uncountable noun)… a narrow strip of larch and beech… stretched out towards the valley… [21] (uncountable nouns)… I come into a lane, which winds upwards between grassy slopes to… woods of noble beech. [21] (an uncountable noun)

c) When the nouns tree, bush, twig, etc. do not indicate separate objects but an indivisible whole (compare with the meaning of such nouns as leafage, blossom, brushwood, also with the Russian листва, цвет, кустарник - собирательные существительные):

It (the tree) was covered with young blossoms, pink and t white…; and on this entire blossom! The sunlight glistened. [21] (1. a countable noun; 2. an uncountable noun) - … the may-flower, both pink and white, was in full bloom. [21] (a countable noun)… an old orchard of apple-trees just breaking into flower, stretched down to a stream and a long wild meadow. [21] (an uncountable noun)… a few gold leaves are still hanging… [21] (a countable noun) The apple-tree was in leaf, and all but in flower - its crimson buds just bursting. [7] (uncountable nouns) In that early spring a few buds were showing already. [7] (a countable noun) - He leaned against one of the satin-smooth stems, under the lacery of twig and bud. [7] (uncountable nouns)

d) When the name of an object is used to denote substance, that is, when it becomes the name of a material:

The summits of these vast mountains were enveloped in clouds… [1] (a countable noun)… the sky was lined with a uniform sheet of dripping cloud… [9] (an uncountable noun) Gemmy… presently returned with an egg beaten up in milk. [22] (a countable noun) - Egg is on your coat, (an uncountable noun) A load that lay on Hood's mind like a rock suddenly rose like an eagle… [9] (a countable noun) - Grass ceases to grow, and the track is almost lost to view among piles of loose slate rock. [20] (an uncountable noun)

The plural forms developed (some of them lose) in connection with a change of meaning of the noun. The cases are following: a number of nouns in English which are used only in the singular may through a change or variation of meaning acquire the forms of both numbers, singular and plural, sometimes material nouns and abstract nouns are used in the plural with emphatic force, a number of nouns which express both singular and plural (countable) may with a change of meaning are used only in the singular.

3. Modes and means of expression grammatical meaning of number in Russian language

The categories of number form one opposition - singular and plural. Russian language hasn't special forms, which express only meaning of number. Six cases forms express each of two meaning of number. Forms of case - it simultaneously forms of gender and nouns.

Compare: sing. - лес, леса, лесу, лес, лесом, о лесе; pl. - леса, лесов, лесам, леса, лесами, о лесах1.

The inflexion of nouns emerges as indicator of number express simultaneously grammatical meaning of gender (singular) and case.

In separate groups of name of nouns opposite singular and plural number express with the help of suffixes - я, - овья, - ec, which is additional grammatical means, because it emerge together with the inflexion: зять - зя[тя], князь - кня[зя], сын - сын-о[вья], небо - неб-ес-а,…

In nouns with compound suffix - ан/ин (-ян/ин), чан/чин, which express meaning together with inflexion, in plural this suffix is absent and meaning of number express only with the help of inflexion: граждан/ин/O - граждан/е, северян/ин/O - северян/е,…

In names of animals' baby singular number express with the help of suffix - онок (-енок), which in plural interchange with suffix - ат-а (-ят-а): буйволёнок - буйволята, скворчонок - скворчата, страусёнок - страусята…

Correlations in the names of children meet seldom: казачонок - казачата, батрачонок - батрачата, барчонок - барчата. In the names of mushrooms more seldom: опёнок - опята, маслёнок - маслята.

Interchange consonants and transference of stress used for generated of form of number by way of additional means.

Compare: 1) друг - дру[зья] (г-з'); ухо - уши (х-ш); клин - клинья (н-н'). 2) место-места, местам, местами, о местах.

In such a way, meaning of number express syntactically, that is to say with the help of inner resources of word: inflexions, suffixes, interchange of consonants, stress. Used more analytical means - forms agreement.

Compare: забавный лисёнок - забавные лисята, моё ухо - мои уши, летит гусь - летят гуси.

Just analytically (syntactically) express the category of number - indeclinable nouns, which haven't their inflexion.

Compare: красивое кашне - красивые кашне, кафе закрыто - все кафе были закрыты. Separate words have suppletive forms of number: человек - люди, ребёнок - дети.

Figurative used forms of the category of nouns.

Used form of singular number meet often in the meaning of plural number. Example: Речь идет о настоятельной необходимости создать для детей новую, советскую, социалистическую популярно-научную и художественно яркую книгу. В поездке мы встретились с широким массовым зрителем наших национальных республик.

Forms of plural number in the meaning of singular used in oral speech (в университетах не учился, институтов не кончал) it is have in view one university and one institute.

3.1 Nouns Used Only in the Singular

Nouns which have only singular form and not used in plural belong to a group «Singularia Tantum». They are:

1. Uncountable nouns of material, substance (oil, butter, milk, sugar, water, petroleum, steel, copper, wood, ice, gold…) In plural such nouns denote different sorts of material. When denoting a certain object they may have both singular and plural.

2. Collective nouns (youth, the students, spruce forest)

3. Abstract nouns (whiteness, cleanness, laziness, kindness, thinness, enthusiasm, rush, mowing, walking, heat, dampness, thaw…)

4. Proper names. These words get plural form if they used nominally or denote group of people which have the same surname (gender of Tolstoy).

Proper names denoting unique objects (sun, moon…)

Some abstract nouns are used in English only in the singular whereas in Russian the corresponding nouns are used in both numbers (information, advice, news, knowledge…) «This news is pleasant» To indicate concrete instances of information or advice the words «piece», «item» are used «It was the most interesting item of information»

3.2 Nouns Used Only in the Plural

Nouns which have only plural form and not used in singular belong to a group «Plularia Tantum». They are:

1. The names of things which consist of two similar halves (scissors, trousers, spectacles, scales (весы), eye-glasses, tongs (щипцы), gates…) «Your spectacles are on the table»

2. The names of some games (chees, hide-and-seek, blind man's buff…)

3. Denotation of some distance (holidays, day, workdays, twilight…)

4. The names of some mass of substance (pasta, perfume, ink, yeast…)

5. Proper names which connected with first collective meaning (Alps, Carpathians…)

The categories of number form one opposition - singular and plural. Russian language hasn't special forms, which express only meaning of number. Forms of case - it simultaneously forms of gender and nouns. Meaning of number express syntactically, that is to say with the help of inner resources of word: inflexions, suffixes, interchange of consonants, stress. If we compare the category of number in English and Russian, Russian noun, as well as English nouns, can be subdivided into groups - nouns used only in the singular (uncountable nouns of material, substance; collective nouns; abstract nouns; proper names) and nouns used only in the plural (the names of things which consist of two similar halves; the names of some games; denotation of some distance; the names of some mass of substance; proper names which connected with first collective meaning.