(14) Robert jumped one metre/over the fence/out of the shadow.

(15) Carol sprang at him/to her feet.

Finally, as shown below, verb membership can also be determined by the parameter describing the nature of the subject or object.

The verbs shake, tremble and quiver may be found with a subject argument semantically characterized as human or as concrete. But they can also take an object denoting a part of the body via the metaphor Body part = Human (Goatly 1997):

(16) Mark was so nervous that his knees were shaking.

Sail typically occurs with a subject semantically characterized as boat. Its use with a human agent results from a metonymical process (content for receptacle):

(17) They sailed the Mediterranean.

Rise designates upward movement of both human and concrete entities, but the prototypical argument is human, as shown in the restricted use of rise with human subjects when it describes body movement:

(18) She rose to greet me.

Fall, plunge and plummet, which denote downward movement, may also occur with human and concrete entities:

(19) He fell off the horse.

(20) The vase fell from her hand.

Lastly, the verbs swing, lift, raise and bend take an object semantically marked as object or part of the body:

(21) She lifted her head when I came in.

(22) The suitcase is too heavy for him to lift.

2.3. Metaphorical extension of the lexemes

The verbs creep and escape fall within various subdomains because of their metaphorical extension.

Creep typically describes a person's slow movement towards a place and thus falls primarily within the subdomain To move in a particular way, which refers to movement on land. Yet it also belongs to the subdomain To move slowly through a process of personification (Object/Substance=Human), whereby a concrete entity semantically marked as “light/ shadow/ mist” is seen as a human entity. The meaning components speed --“slowly”-- and secrecy --“without/hardly being noticed”-- are basic to the definition of both verbs.

On the other hand, escape falls in the subdomains To move off/away from a place/ thing/ person and To move out of a place. This double membership obtains from the metaphorization of liquid as a human entity:

(23) Gas is escaping from this hole.

3. Interfield membership of MOVEMENT verbs

We have so far analysed the intrafield membership of a set of MOVEMENT verbs, i.e. their grouping under several subdomains within the semantic domain of MOVEMENT. We will now focus on the verbs' interfield membership, i.e. their projection onto other semantic fields.

The relations of a semantic domain with others codify metaphorical processes, thus showing that lexical structure is governed by conceptual structure., or, in Sweetser's words (1990:25), “much of meaning is grounded in speakers' understanding of the world”. Indeed, each language is equivalent to a particular conceptual system by means of which we interpret our environment, and this conceptual organization is reflected in the lexicon. This means that metaphor is not only a cognitive but also a linguistic phenomenon. Metaphorical processes are encoded in the lexicon and must thus be integrated in a lexical model.

Therefore, the codification of metaphorical processes in the lexicon not only tells us a great deal about how we understand and construct reality but also reflects the internal organization of the lexicon.

Below we sketch the metaphors codified in the domain of MOVEMENT, which establish connections with the semantic fields of COGNITION, SPEECH, CHANGE, FEELING and ACTION.

Following Goatly (1997), the metaphorization of abstract entities can obtain through a process of reification or personification. Reifying metaphors fall into three categories:

(i) Concretizing metaphors, which codify the representation of abstract entities as objects or cloth/clothes (first row).

(ii) Orientational metaphors, i.e. equations linked to the notion of place/space (second row).

(iii) Metaphors related to the notion of orientation. Abstract concepts such as health, pitch, happiness, amount and rank are seen as entities on a vertical axis (up/down)5.

The last set of equations codify the personification of abstract entities.

Note that some verbs codify several metaphors, e.g. rise, fall, sink, lower. In this regard, we may affirm that the intrafield membership correlates with the interfield double membership.

MOVEMENT AND CHANGE

The projection of MOVEMENT onto CHANGE touches upon verbs denoting an increase or decrease in amount or degree, thus linking MOVEMENT to CHANGE, since the semantic parameters of amount and degree traverse the domain of CHANGE. The connection between both semantic fields obtains from a set of orientational metaphors (cf. above):

(24) He has risen to the position of manager.

(25) Share prices have plunged.

MOVEMENT AND FEELING

MOVEMENT verbs also extend to FEELING. This extension results from the codification of several metaphorical processes:

- the metaphorical representation of a feeling (happiness) on an up/down scale:

(26) Whenever I feel down, Martha lifts my spirits.

(27) Peter's face fell when I broke the news to him.

- the personification of body parts. This metaphor interacts with the previous one (cf. example above).

- the metaphorical structuring of emotions as sense expressions. The verbs shake, tremble,shiver, shudder and quiver describe body movement as expression of an internal emotional state (anxiety, fear, disgust). This metaphorical process can be explained by the fact that emotions have corresponding physical effects on the experiencer, and these effects have come to represent the emotion that caused them:

(28) He trembled like a leaf at the sight of the tiger.

MOVEMENT AND COGNITION

The metaphorical projection of MOVEMENT into COGNITION results from a process of reification or personification of abstract entities. On the one hand, ideas can be metaphorized as objects moving in/into (revolve, penetrate) or out of somebody's mind (slip, escape):6

(29) The importance of her decision did not penetrate at first.

(30) His surname has slipped my mind.

(31) There is a major point which seems to have escaped you.

To use Halliday's terminology (1994:117), the last examples are instances of the please-type metaphorical structuring of mental processes. Mental processes can be represented either as like-types or please-types. This means that I like X is equivalent to X pleases me. Then, It has slipped my mind/It has escaped me has the same meaning as I have forgotten it.

Ideas can also be seen as objects which are pushed into someone's mind:

(32) He stuffed my head full of strange ideas.

Following Reddy (1993), the verbs stuff, cram and shove lexicalize an aspect of the conduit metaphor, which explains the conceptualization of communication as the transfer of thoughts bodily from one person to another.

MOVEMENT AND SPEECH

The verbs raise, drop, pass, spin and weave show the extension of MOVEMENT to SPEECH. Ideas can be communicated like objects being moved: raise (a subject, an objection), drop7 (a hint, remark), pass (a sentence, remark):

(33) You shouldn't drop hints about promotion to your boss.

Words can also be metaphorically seen as strands of thread that the speaker puts together to produce a coherent message:

(34) The old sea captain sat by the fire spinning yawns.

MOVEMENT AND ACTION

The connection of MOVEMENT with ACTION is established though the metaphorization of activities as places. Activities can be described as if they were linear motion. It is then possible to move into (rush) or away from an activity (leave, quit, abandon):

(35) They abandoned the game because of the rain.

On the other hand, causing an activity is causing movement forward:

(36) She pushed me into taking the job.

Conclusion

The semantic analysis of the field of MOVEMENT has shown that words are embedded in a set of rich semantic relations. The focalization of a meaning component and the genus of the lexeme account for the extension of a few MOVEMENT verbs to other subdomains within the domain (intrafield extensions). On the other hand, the metaphorical processes encoded in the semantic domain of MOVEMENT account for the projection of many verbs onto other semantic fields (interfield extensions), thus giving proof of the linguistic significance of metaphor.a

NOTES

1 This assumption is found in some semantic theories (i.e. prototype semantics).

2 By working upwards from the definitional structure of primary lexemes, Faber and Mairal (1997) have identified eleven semantic domains corresponding to basic conceptual categories: EXISTENCE, MOVEMENT, POSITION, CHANGE, PERCEPTION, FEELING, COGNITION, POSSESSION, SPEECH, SOUND, and GENERAL ACTION.

3 The concept of subdomain is based on Geckelerґs (1971) concept of lexical dimension.

4 See appendix for the configuration of the paradigmatic axis of the semantic domain of MOVEMENT.

5 Lakoff and Johnson's Experiential Hypothesis (1980: 267-268) postulates that most abstract concepts arise from our preconceptual bodily experiences as infants --like the experience of up and down-- by metaphorical projection.

6 Note the conceptualization of the mind as a place. As Romelhart (1993:89) points out: “We use a spatial world to talk about the mind”.

7 This verb codifies the conduit metaphor (cf. above).

8 The verbs in brackets are an example of the type of verbs falling in each subdomain.

Appendix: Paradigmatic description of the semantic domain of MOVEMENT8

1. MOVEMENT

1.1. General (move)

1.1.1. To move in a particular way

1.1.1.1. To move quickly (race, hurry)

1.1.1.1a. To cause sb/sth to move quickly (race, hurry)

1.1.1.2. To move slowly (slow, trundle)

1.1.1.2a. To cause sth to move slowly (slow, trundle)

1.1.1.3. To move smoothly (glide, slide)

1.1.1.4. To move forwards quickly/suddenly (jump, leap)

1.1.1.5. To move in a circular manner (curl, circle)

1.1.1.5a. To cause sth to move in a circular manner (turn, spin)

1.1.1.6. To move from side to side/back and forth/up and down repeatedly (swing, rock)

1.1.1.6a. To cause sb/sth to move from side to side/back and forth/up and down repeatedly (swing, rock)

1.1.2. To move off/away from a place/thing/person (leave, go)

1.1.3. To move towards a place/person (advance, go)

1.1.4. To move backwards (back, reverse)

1.1.4a. To cause sth to move backwards (back, reverse)

1.1.5. To move upwards (rise, climb)

1.1.5a. To cause sb/sth to move upwards (lift, raise)

1.1.6. To move downwards (fall, descend)

1.1.6a. To cause sth to move downwards (lower, drop)

1.1.7. To move upside down (turn over, overturn)

1.1.7a. To cause sb/sth to move upside down (turn over, overturn)

1.1.8. To move across/over/through (pass, cross)

1.1.9. To move in a different direction (change, turn)

1.1.10. To move in relation to sb/sth

1.1.10.1. To move together (accompany)

1.1.10.1a. To cause sb/sth to go with you (take, bring)

1.1.10.1.1. To move with sb, going before/after (lead, follow)

1.1.10.2. To move round in order to be on all sides of (gather round, surround)

1.1.10.3. To move out in all directions (spread)

1.1.10.3a. To cause sth to move out in all directions (spread)

1.1.10.4. To move into a place (enter)

1.1.10.4a. To cause sb/sth to move into a place/sth (pierce, push)

1.1.10.4.1. To move into a building by force (break in)

1.1.10.5. To move out of a place (emerge)

1.1.10.6. To move to a different place/position (shift, relocate)

1.1.10.6a. To cause sb/sth to move to a different place/position (shift, relocate)

1.1.10.6.1. To move sb/sth to a different place/position by holding and drawing them along, esp. with force (pull)

1.1.10.6.2. To move sb/sth to a different place/position by holding/walking behind them and exerting force on them, esp. with one's hands (push)

1.1.11. To not move any more (stop)

1.1.11a. To cause sb/sth to not move any more (stop)

1.2. Liquid

1.2.1. To move as liquid in a particular way (flow)

1.2.1.1. To move slowly in small quantities (drip)

1.2.1.2. To move quickly in large quantities (pour)

1.2.1.3. To move out through an opening (squirt)

1.2.1.3a. To cause a liquid to move out through an opening (squirt)

1.2.2. To move in/downwards below the surface of a liquid (sink)

1.2.2.a. To cause sb/sth to move in/downwards below the surface of a liquid (sink)

1.2.3. To move over liquid (sail)

1.3. Atmosphere

1.3.1. To move through the air (fly)

1.3.2. To move upwards (rise)

1.3.3. To move downwards (descend)

1.4. Land

1.4.1. To move in a particular way (skulk, creep)

1.4.1.1. To move using one's feet (walk)

1.4.1.1.1. To move quickly using one's feet (run)

1.4.1.1.2. To move up and down using one's feet (jump)

1.4.2. To move downwards to the ground (fall)

1.4.3. To move one's body (writhe, squirm)

1.4.3.1. To move one's body by raising it (stand up)

1.4.3.2. To move one's body by lowering it (sit)

1.4.3.3. To move a part of one's body (raise, bend, lick)

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